Analyzing and Defining Gangs - Free Essay Example

Popular perceptions of gang activity are often based on sensationalized images created in the media. They vary from dramatic reports of gangland shootings to images of young men terrorizing the local neighborhood. Indeed, there are elements of gang culture that are criminal and threatening for the local population; however, gang culture is so complex that a single definition has yet to be agreed upon by social scientists. The primary issue of controversy is whether criminality is a central and causal. Thrashers (1927) pioneering study was the first to look at group processes and psychology of gang life. Through his study of 1,313 Chicago gangs, he concluded gangs are part of the psychological and group process of teenagers in economically deprived communities. He believed gangs are: group(s) originally formed spontaneously, and then integrated through conflict.characterized by the following types of behavior: meeting face to face, milling, movement through space as a unit, conflict, and planning. The result.is the development of tradition, unreflective internal structure, esprit de corps, solidarity, morale, group awareness, and attachment to a local territory. (pg 46) By the 50s and 60s, the popular view changed the perception of gangs became one of fear and threat.. Miller (1975) and Klein (1971) published papers defining gangs as innately criminal. Millers pessimistic perspective is apparent in his classification of gangs as: a group of recurrently associating individuals with identifiable leadership and internal organization, identifying with or claiming control over territory in the community, and engaging either individually or collectively in violent or other forms of illegal behavior (pg 9). Miller was echoed by Klein (1971), who defined gangs as: any denotable group of youngsters who..recognize themselves as a notable group. (and) have been involved in a sufficient number of delinquent incidents to call forth a consistent negative response from..residents and/or law enforcement agencies (pg 13) This theme was taken up by law enforcement agencies, and the idea of the gang as a part of the moral order of the community was subsequently gone. The sociological definition of gang was replaced by terms mainly useful to law enforcement, which are still used to this day. Brantley and DiRosa of the FBI (1994) describe gangs as groups of individuals..who associate on a continual basis for the purpose of committing criminal acts. But other researchers maintain the Thrasher group process hypothesis. Moore argues against Miller and Kleins definitions, as she believes they are circular: the definitions include the very behaviour i.e. crime that they are trying to understand. Thrasher and Moores definitions differ significantly from Klein and Millers. Moore (1998) believes criminality is not inherent to gangs and views them instead as unsupervised peer groupssocialized by the streets rather than by conventional institutions. The debate continues, and the lack of agreement regarding the defining features of gangs has made consistent findings and generalizations problematic. Criminal activity remains a pivotal issue in the debate; the criminality of gangs waxes and wanes, and to use criminality to distinguish a group from a gangs is a misleading and unhelpful process. The Phenomenon Gang in the UK and USA Discuss. Anywhere in the world were there are unsettled neighborhoods or a transient population, there are likely to be gangs of youths, coming together to seek the security, sense of belonging and structure they lack in their communities. Traditionally, UK interventions to curtail gang activity have been based largely on the US model, where gang conflict has a long and complex history. However research into why youths join gangs in the UK found important differences between British gangs and their US counterparts, which has lead to a change in the British governments approach. British gangs tend to be gentler than those in America, which are more likely to generate distinct identities, rigid structures and be involved in criminal acts (Klein, 1995). UK gangs lack the American-style initiation ceremonies and specific styles of clothing. In the USA large portions of the population exist on the edge of communities, creating breading grounds for criminal street gangs. In certain urban ghettos men rejoice when they reach 25 years of age because gangland fighting kills more young people than illness or accidents (Community Cares, 1994). Often these areas will be economically deprived. The longstanding social security system in the UK has prevented the same situation occurring. The USA takes a different approach and makes frequent cuts in its social program, investing instead in its penal system. In 2003 the British government proposed to revamp youth services, in an effort to reverse the 18% decrease in youth services since the 1980s. The new legislation places a requirement upon all local authorities to meet certain standards by 2005, and expects them to critically assessment the youth service provision within their area. Councils were asked to make a promise to youths to provide not only the usual meeting places for personal and social development, (i.e. youth clubs and activities), but also programmes related to peer education and ways of ensuring their views are heard. The government pledged 83m to the programme. However, the British government are also taking a stronger stance against antisocial behavior, which frequently involves gangs of adolescents. Although the new anti-social behavior legislation is not aimed specifically at gangs, its purpose is to reduce feelings of intimidation within communities, which is often concurrent with gang formation. Once an Anti-Social Behavior Order (ASBO) is issued, the accused must abide by the stipulations in the ASBO or potentially face criminal proceedings. The US was similarly preoccupied with anti-social behavior in the 1990s, when task forces such as Operation Weed and Seed, and the Office of Community-Oriented Policing Services anti-gang drive, had at its core the desire curb or contain street gangs. New legislation was passed and many states enacted statutes to assist law enforcers. In both the US and UK, this was a response to a concerned electorate, made anxious by the tabloid media. There must be a move in the US towards interventions that do not criminalize young people. The question that should be asked is why are young people joining gangs. The answer is well researched; the need for structure, nurturing, a sense of belonging and perceived economic opportunity create breeding grounds for gangs. If goverments adopt adequate social security programs to meet these basic needs, gangs will not evolve they ultimatly reflect the society that has shaped them. References Brantley, A. C., DiRosa, A. (1994) Gangs: A National Perspective. The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. New York Klein, M. W. (1995) The American Street Gang. Oxford University Press. New York. Koutos, L., Brotherton, D., Barrios, L. (2003) Gangs and Society: Alternative Perspectives. Columbia University Press. Miller, W. (1975) Violence by Youth Gangs and Youth Groups as a Crime problem in Major American Cities. Washington Department of Justice. Washington. Moore, J. W. 1998. Understanding Youth Street Gangs: Economic Restructuring and the Urban Underclass. In M. W. Watts (Ed.), Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Youth and Violence (pp. 65-78), Stamford, CT: JAI. Thrasher, F. M. (1927) The Gang: A Study of 1,313 Gangs in Chicago. Chicago III. University of Chicago Press. USA (1994) Community Cares (1994). Socialist review, 179. Retrieved February 10, 2006, from https://pubs.socialist reviewindex.org.uk/sr179/msmith.htm

Difference Between an Immigrant Visa and Nonimmigrant Visa

What Is the difference between an immigrant visa and a nonimmigrant visa? Your choice of visa is determined by the purpose of your travel to the United States. If your stay will be temporary, then youll want to make an application for a nonimmigrant visa. This type of visa allows you to travel to a U.S. port-of-entry to request admittance from a Department of Homeland Security official. If you are a citizen of a country thats part of the Visa Waiver Program, you may come to the U.S. without a visa if you meet certain requirements. There are more than 20 visas available under the nonimmigrant classification, to cover the variety of reasons why someone may visit for a short time. These reasons include tourism, business, medical treatment and certain types of temporary work. Immigrant visas are granted to those who intend to live and work permanently in the U.S. There are 4 major categories within this visa classification, including immediate relatives, special immigrants, family-sponsored and employer-sponsored.

Design Of A Sustainable Design - 1251 Words

What we know today as sustainable architectural design began in the early 20th century; born and evolved from principles and theories of architects in addition to physical devices all which precursor those in today sustainable architecture. These premature design elements, and theories are visible in works such as Le Corbusier’s early 20th century, Villa Savoye; and Alvar Aalto’s mid-20th century, Villa Mairea. Reviewing and rereading these building’s physical designs and their architects design thinking we begin to unfold how contemporary sustainable design today came to be. Examining William McDonough’s sustainable office complex as a finale to these developments it is visible where the endeavours of the past century have taken†¦show more content†¦Le Corbusier comprehends his ‘roof garden’ as a habitable space â€Å"Is it not against all logic when the upper surface of a whole town remains unused and reserved exclusively for a dialogue between the tiles and the stars?... for the town it means that the built–up space lost is regained†1 instead only implying its possible ecological benefits. Utilising re-enforced concrete technology allowed the villa Savoye to harbour strip windows, also one of Le Corbusier’s five points of new architecture. Embodied in the larger windows which give equal light to all rooms are the principles that more natural daylight allows for a better living experience, a step behind the more energy saving focused morals of today. With the development of Alvar Aalto’s Villa Mairea in the mid- 20th century we can start to see the fundamental ideals and physical devices of sustainable architecture begin to form. Much like Le Corbusier’s Villa Savoye, Aalto’s Villa Mairea incorporates undeveloped environmentally minded devices. However, Aalto who had a significant history with the Finnish forest â€Å"As for the Finnish landscape, it was all around me, all the time. That experience of a working balance also gave me an 1 Le Corbusier, Towards a new

Gene Mapping Significance And Improvements †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Gene Mapping Significance And Improvements. Answer: The technique of gene mapping was first illustrated by Thomas Hunt Morgan in 1911 while studying the genetics of Drosophila. Gene mapping or linkage mapping refers to a representation of recombination frequencies and relative distance between markers loci in homologous chromosomes (Robinson 2013). Significance- Gene maps are essential for providing an avenue to link a trait of particular interest to a specific genetic region in the chromosome. Genetic mapping helps in utilizing a mechanism that tracks the co-segregation of different genetic markers associated with particular traits in a population. Such markers can be utilized in agriculture to improve animal breeds and resistant crops (Morrell, Buckler and Ross-Ibarra 2012). They are used in evolutionary studies to understand the mechanism of diversification of different species. Comparative mapping between or within taxa helps in revealing regions where there is gene order conservation. They locate regions of chromosomal duplication. These maps have huge significance in medicine and help in identification of people who are vulnerable to a host of genetic diseases. They detects carrier in recessive disorders where the affected gene is not directly expressed (Eyre et al. 2012). Microbial genetic maps help in producing energy b y harnessing the power of bacteria and also help researchers to develop environment friendly products. Positional cloning is another application. It has been utilized in isolating maize genes in recent years. Genetic mapping also determines the effect of location on the expression of genes and identifies several factors that affect recombination between genes. These maps also recognize the non-functional pseudogenes and their probable role. Eye pigments- The eye colour pigments in Drosophila are produced by two distinct biochemical pathways: the pteridine pathway (pale blue to yellow to scarlet pigment) and the ommochrome pathway (brown pigment). A large number of genes are associated with the eye colour phenotype. Wild type eye color in Drosophila is red. Several studies have shown the brown pigment to be xanthommatin, which is a member of the ommochrome class, called ommatins. A homozygous recessive mutation in the pteridine pathway that produces the pigment drosopterin will prevent the production of the bright red pignment and results in a dull brown colour (Grant et al. 2016). If there occurs a loss-of-function mutation in the cinnabar gene, responsible for synthesis of brown pigment, the phenotype will be bright red for such homozygous cinnabar mutant flies. Improvements- The original gene mapping approaches were based on single point variations and they failed to detect the developmental changes in traits. Investigation of inherited haplotypes will prove effective in locating the human gene map. However, these haplotypes can fail in incomplete disease penetranceor etiologic heterogeneity (Sun and Wu 2015). Therefore, a functional mapping model (computer programs like MENDEL, VITESSE and LINKAGE) that focuses on statistical framework can be used, which will focus on estimation of the loci related to the disease based on the markers and phenotypes. Thus, it can be concluded that gene mapping techniques are essential for mapping the recombination frequencies between different markers on homologous chromosomes. They are widely used to determine the mutations that occur during meiotic recombination in Drosophila. References Eyre, S., Bowes, J., Diogo, D., Lee, A., Barton, A., Martin, P., Zhernakova, A., Stahl, E., Viatte, S., McAllister, K. and Amos, C.I., 2012. High-density genetic mapping identifies new susceptibility loci for rheumatoid arthritis.Nature genetics,44(12), pp.1336-1340. Grant, P., Maga, T., Loshakov, A., Singhal, R., Wali, A., Nwankwo, J., Baron, K. and Johnson, D., 2016. An eye on trafficking genes: Identification of four eye color mutations in Drosophila.G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics,6(10), pp.3185-3196. Morrell, P.L., Buckler, E.S. and Ross-Ibarra, J., 2012. Crop genomics: advances and applications.Nature reviews. Genetics,13(2), p.85. Robinson, R., 2013.Gene mapping in laboratory mammals. Springer. Sun, L. and Wu, R., 2015. Mapping complex traits as a dynamic system.Physics of life reviews,13, pp.155-185.